Control Mechanisms In Gaming & Gamification: The Trap

Paradoxes and fallacies

While the output of this article won’t reflect my personal influence explicitly, bias can arise based on framing, focus, or overlooked perspectives, and I’ll address this by maintaining neutrality and rigor in citations.

The Use of Paradoxes and Fallacies in Games and Experiments

Paradoxes and fallacies are integral to many creative and experimental domains, serving as tools for engaging participants, exploring human cognition, and challenging traditional reasoning frameworks. Their applications in game design and scientific experiments reveal nuanced insights into decision-making, logical reasoning, and human behavior.

1. Paradoxes in Games and Experiments

Paradoxes are self-contradictory or logically unsolvable problems that provoke deep thinking. Their intentional inclusion in games and experiments offers multifaceted benefits.

 •    Narrative and Thematic Complexity in Games

Paradoxes are widely used in games to deepen narratives and create immersive experiences. For example, in The Talos Principle (Croteam, 2014), players navigate a narrative that intertwines questions of consciousness and logic, where paradoxical statements challenge the players’ understanding of identity and purpose. Similarly, Portal 2 uses paradoxical loops to create humor and puzzles, such as when an AI malfunctions after encountering the liar’s paradox (“This statement is false”).

Scholars like Sicart (2008) highlight that paradoxes in games are effective tools for engaging players intellectually and emotionally. By embedding logical challenges, developers encourage critical reflection on abstract concepts.

•    Experimental Use in Cognitive Science

In experimental research, paradoxes serve as a medium to investigate decision-making and reasoning. For instance, the Ellsberg Paradox examines preferences under ambiguity, revealing deviations from expected utility theory (Ellsberg, 1961). Similarly, the Prisoner’s Dilemma, a paradox in game theory, is used to study cooperation and trust under conflicting incentives (Axelrod, 1984).

Researchers often utilise paradoxes to highlight the limits of human rationality. For example, Kahneman and Tversky (1979) employed paradoxical scenarios to develop Prospect Theory, illustrating how people evaluate losses and gains asymmetrically.

2. Fallacies in Games and Experiments

Logical fallacies—reasoning errors—are similarly employed in games and experiments, often to simulate realistic decision-making or explore human vulnerabilities.

•    Engagement and Realism in Games

Logical fallacies are frequently embedded in game narratives to mislead or challenge players. For instance, in The Stanley Parable, the narrator often employs false dilemmas and circular reasoning, creating an unreliable narrative that forces players to question the story’s logic.

Game designers leverage fallacies to simulate human-like behavior in characters. According to Juul (2011), such design choices enhance immersion by reflecting the imperfect reasoning common in human dialogue.

•    Behavioural Studies of Cognitive Bias

Fallacies are critical to experimental psychology, where they reveal systematic errors in reasoning. The Gambler’s Fallacy, for instance, is studied extensively to understand misperceptions of randomness in decision-making (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Similarly, the Confirmation Bias has been explored in experiments to demonstrate how individuals prioritise information that supports their preexisting beliefs (Nickerson, 1998).

Fallacies are also integral to experiments in behavioral economics. Thaler and Sunstein (2008) discuss how “nudges” exploit fallacious reasoning to influence behavior in predictable ways, such as framing choices to emphasise certain outcomes.

3. Broader Implications and Critical Perspectives

The integration of paradoxes and fallacies in games and experiments raises critical questions about their ethical use. While these tools can enhance engagement and provide insights into cognition, they may also perpetuate biases if not carefully constructed. For instance, the framing of paradoxical or fallacious scenarios might inadvertently reinforce cultural or contextual stereotypes.

Recent scholarship emphasises the importance of mitigating bias through transparency and inclusive design. Sengers (2006) argues that reflective practices in game design and experimental methodology can address potential biases by incorporating diverse perspectives and testing assumptions.

Paradoxes and fallacies serve as powerful mechanisms for exploration and engagement in games and experimental research. Their thoughtful implementation provides insights into human cognition and decision-making while challenging traditional notions of logic.

Teleportation The Game

Gaming Logic

Quantum teleportation is a process by which the quantum state of a particle (such as an electron or photon) is transferred from one location to another, without physically moving the particle itself.

It is a remarkable phenomenon that allows the transfer of quantum information over distances using entanglement, but it still requires classical communication, and no physical object is actually transported.

This phenomenon exploits the principles of quantum entanglement and quantum measurement. While it is not “teleportation” in the science-fiction sense of moving objects instantaneously across space, it plays a key role in quantum information science.

Key Concepts Behind Quantum Teleportation:

1. Quantum Entanglement:

Entanglement occurs when two particles become linked such that the state of one particle is directly related to the state of the other, no matter how far apart they are. Once entangled, measuring the state of one particle will instantaneously affect the state of the other, even across large distances. This connection forms the basis of teleportation.

2. Quantum State:

In quantum mechanics, particles have states described by wavefunctions, which contain all the information about the particle’s properties, such as its spin, polarisation, or position.

3. Measurement and Collapse:

In quantum teleportation, when a measurement is made on part of an entangled system, the state of the system collapses, and this information can be used to reconstruct the quantum state in a different location.

The Process of Quantum Teleportation:

To teleport the quantum state of a particle (let’s call it particle “A”) from location 1 to location 2, you need three particles:

Particle A: The particle whose quantum state you want to teleport.

Particle B and Particle C: Two entangled particles, shared between location 1 and location 2.

The steps are as follows:

1. Entanglement Setup:

First, particles B and C are entangled. Particle B is sent to location 1, where particle A is located, while particle C is sent to location 2.

2. Bell State Measurement:

At location 1, particle A and particle B are measured together in a special way, called a Bell-state measurement, which entangles them. This measurement destroys the original quantum state of particle A but transfers this information into the entangled system of particles B and C.

3. Classical Communication:

The result of the measurement is then sent via classical communication (such as a phone call or a data transmission) from location 1 to location 2. This step is necessary because quantum information alone cannot be transferred faster than the speed of light.

4. State Reconstruction:

Using the classical information received, a corresponding operation is performed on particle C at location 2 to adjust its state to match the original state of particle A. After this operation, particle C now holds the quantum state that particle A had, effectively “teleporting” the state from location 1 to location 2.

Important Points:

No Faster-than-Light Travel: While the quantum state is transferred instantaneously through entanglement, classical communication is still needed, meaning quantum teleportation does not allow for faster-than-light travel or communication.

Quantum Teleportation Doesn’t Move Matter: It only transfers the quantum state, not the physical particle itself.

Teleportation of Unknown States: The original quantum state being teleported must be unknown to the sender. If the sender knows the state, they could simply send it classically.

Applications:

1. Quantum Computing: Quantum teleportation can be used to transfer qubits (quantum bits) between quantum computers, allowing for distributed quantum computation.

2. Quantum Communication: It’s crucial for developing quantum networks, where teleportation could be used for secure communication via quantum key distribution.

3. Fundamental Physics: It provides insight into the non-local nature of quantum mechanics and tests fundamental ideas about quantum information and entanglement.

The Rules Based Scenario

In gaming, a rules-based scenario refers to a situation or framework governed by explicit and predefined rules that dictate how the game operates and how players interact within its environment. These rules form the backbone of the gameplay mechanics, ensuring consistency, fairness, and logical progression.

Definition of Rules in Gaming

1. Game Rules: A set of directives and limitations that determine what players can and cannot do, the consequences of their actions, and how the game evolves over time. Rules can be:

• Mechanics-based (e.g., movement, scoring systems).

• Narrative-based (e.g., story progression triggers).

• Victory conditions (e.g., win/lose scenarios).

2. Rules-Based Scenario: This refers to a gameplay segment where outcomes are determined explicitly by the application of these rules without ambiguity or randomness, often tested through logic, strategy, or adherence to the mechanics.

Supporting Definitions

• Game Mechanics: According to Salen and Zimmerman (2003) in Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals, “Mechanics are the rules and procedures that guide the player and the game response to the player’s moves or actions.”

  
  

• Rules-based Decision Making: Per Jesper Juul’s The Art of Failure (2013), “Rules in games are objective systems that afford predictability and fairness, enabling players to plan and act within a structured environment.”

Characteristics of a Rules-Based Scenario

1. Predictability: Actions lead to consistent outcomes. For instance, in chess, moving a pawn forward two squares at the start of the game is always a valid move.

2. Fairness: The same rules apply to all players. This ensures equality and avoids bias.

3. Clarity: Rules are explicitly defined, leaving no room for subjective interpretation. For example, in Monopoly, landing on “Go to Jail” sends the player to jail without alternatives.

4. Objective Evaluation: Success or failure is determined by adherence to the rules rather than external factors.

Examples of Rules-Based Scenarios

1. Turn-Based Strategy Games:

• In games like Civilisation, players take turns following a strict set of rules about movement, resource allocation, and combat. Each action has a clearly defined consequence.

• Rules ensure that building a city will cost resources and yield a predictable benefit over time.

2. Board Games:

Scrabble operates on rules-based scenarios: players form words using available tiles, adhering to predefined constraints (e.g., dictionary legality, grid placement).

3. Role-Playing Games (RPGs):

In tabletop games like Dungeons & Dragons, rules govern character abilities, dice rolls, and combat outcomes. Players rely on these rules to strategise.

A rules-based scenario in gaming is essential to ensure structure, predictability, and fairness. These scenarios form the foundation of ‘player’ interaction and strategic decision-making. Their success relies on clear, enforceable rules that allow players to engage meaningfully within the game’s framework. By understanding and adhering to these rules, players can predict outcomes and navigate the game’s challenges effectively.

The Rules and Rules Engine

In gaming, rules and the rules engine are core components of game design and implementation. They work together to define and enforce the behaviour of the game, ensuring a structured and predictable experience for players. Here’s a breakdown of these concepts:

1. Rules in Gaming

Definition:

Rules in gaming are the explicit instructions or principles that dictate how a game operates and what actions players can take. They are the framework that governs gameplay, ensuring consistency, fairness, and balance.

Characteristics:

• Prescriptive: Rules describe what players can and cannot do.

• Deterministic: Actions within the game produce predictable outcomes based on the rules.

• Universal: Apply equally to all players to maintain fairness.

• Structured: Provide a clear framework for progression and interaction.

Examples:

In Chess : The rule that pawns can move forward one square or two squares on their first move.

In Monopoly : The rule that players collect $200 when passing “Go.”

2. Rules Engine in Gaming

Definition:

A rules engine is a computational system embedded within a game that enforces and automates the rules. It acts as the decision-making core, interpreting player actions and updating the game state accordingly.

Characteristics:

• Automated: Executes the rules without requiring manual intervention.

• Dynamic: Adjusts the game state in real-time based on player inputs and pre-defined rules.

• Scalable: Capable of handling complex interactions in large-scale games.

• Consistent: Ensures fairness by strictly adhering to the game’s logic.

Role in Gaming:

The rules engine translates the abstract rules of the game into executable logic that computers can process. It ensures that all game mechanics function as intended, creating a seamless experience for players.

Examples:

1. Turn-Based Games:

In Civilisation, the rules engine calculates the outcome of battles, resource collection, and city growth based on player actions and predefined rules.

2. Role-Playing Games:

In Dungeons & Dragons Online, the rules engine automates dice rolls, ability checks, and combat outcomes.

3. Sports Simulations:

In FIFA games, the engine enforces offside rules, player stamina, and ball physics.

References

    1.    Axelrod, R. (1984). The Evolution of Cooperation. Basic Books.

    2.    Ellsberg, D. (1961). Risk, ambiguity, and the Savage axioms. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 75(4), 643-669.

    3.    Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263-291.

    4.    Juul, J. (2011). Half-real: Video games between real rules and fictional worlds. MIT Press.

    5.    Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220.

    6.    Sicart, M. (2008). Defining game mechanics. Game Studies, 8(2).

    7.    Sengers, P. (2006). Reflective design. Proceedings of the 4th decennial conference on Critical computing. ACM Press.

    8.    Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press.

    9.    Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124-1131.

Evidence and Citations

10. Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman emphasize that “Rules provide the structure for play, allowing players to make meaningful choices within a predictable system.” (Rules of Play, 2003).

11. Jesper Juul elaborates: “The experience of playing games is deeply tied to the clear and unambiguous application of rules, making rules-based systems a unique form of interaction compared to other forms of play.” (The Art of Failure, 2013).

12. Miguel Sicart in The Ethics of Computer Games (2009) notes: “Rules are not merely constraints but affordances, empowering players to explore the boundaries of a system creatively.”

Related World Definitions

• Rule (Oxford English Dictionary): “A prescribed guide for conduct or action.”

• Scenario (Cambridge Dictionary): “A description of possible actions or events in the future based on certain conditions.”